Volume 8 (2025)

First page of the paper.

Sous le Ciel Étoilé: Proscynème Cordial au Dr Nadine GUILHOU–AMBROISE

Sacred Smoke and Science: A New Study on the Antimicrobial Effects of Kyphi

Maravelia, Alicia; Faviou, Elsa; Magiorkinis, Emmanuel; Filianos, Markos

Abstract:

From Antiquity to the present aromatics are burned on many occasions, and in many religions, offer­ing a fra­grant smoke as a thanksgiving, expiation and/or pro­pitiation to the divine. The use of the (sacred) smoke of incense in divine worship is very ancient. On the other hand, incense also served as a medicinal substance from Antiquity through to the modern era for pharmaceutical purposes, namely for fumigation. The present study explores the antimicrobial properties of kyphi, a complex incense mixture with 16 components, widely attested in ancient Egyptian ritual and medical texts, in comparison with pure smoke, using controlled micro­biological fumigation experiments. An experimental setup was designed to simulate enclosed fumigation con­ditions comparable to those described in ancient sources. The effects of fumigation were assessed both be­fore and aſter microbial inoculation, in order to distinguish preventive from direct antimicrobial activity. Cli­nical­ly isolated microorganisms, including Streptococcus pyogenes R., Enterococcus gallinarum B. & S., Citrobac­ter ko­seri F., Morganella morganii F. and Proteus mirabilis H., were identified using standardised automated sy­stems, and microbial growth was quantified by Colony–Forming Units (CFU) analysis. Pre–inoculation fumigation showed no significant inhibitory effect, whereas post–inoculation exposure resulted in measurable growth re­duction, predominantly with kyphi. This concocted substance demonstrated consistently greater antimicrobial activity than pure smoke, particularly at higher dilutions, with Gram–negative bacteria, showing increased suscepti­bility. These findings provide experimental evidence supporting the functional antimicrobial role of kyphi, suggesting that its traditional use in ancient Egypt may have combined ritual significance with practi­cal hygi­enic and therapeutic benefits. Thus, sacred smoke from the kyphi–burning was most possibly not only used for ritualistic, but also for proto–scientific (medicinal) purposes.

Citation:

Maravelia, A., Faviou, E., Magiorkinis, E., Filianos, M. 2025. «Sacred Smoke and Science: A New Study on the Antimicrobial Effects of Kyphi », JHIE 8: 221–236

DOI:

10.5281/zenodo.19061933

Language: en

Submitted on 2025-02-14; accepted on 2025-09-10

References

  • Abdallah, N.A., cAbd ᾽El-Rahman, R.Z., Amer, A.K. & Ismaeel, L.I.M.: «Antibacterial Activity of Some Plant Extracts on the Treatment of Surgical Wounds Infection», The Egyptian Journal of Experimental Biology (Botany) 91, 2013, 115-124.
  • ᾿Al-Defiery, M.E.J., ᾿Al-Terehi, M.N., Cridee, N.M.S. & Behjet, R.S.: «Antimicrobial Activity of Some Plant Extracts against Pathogenic Bacteria», Plant Archives 19 (Suppl. 1), 2019, 1403-1409.
  • Awooda, E.M. & Abdelkarim, S.A.: «The Effect of Herbal Medicine against Enterococcus fæcalis on Infected Root Canal Substrate: An Ex–Vivo Study», European Journal of Medicinal Plants 172, 2016, 1-10 [DOI: 10.9734/EJMP /2016/25915 ].
  • Bernardakis, G.N.: Plutarchi Chæronensis Moralia (recognovit Gregorius N. Bernardakis) I-II, Lipsiæ 1889.
  • Blackman, A.M.: «The Significance of Incense and Libations», ZÄS 50, 1912, 69-75.
  • Botanica = Various Authors: Botanica: The Illustrated A–Z of over 10,000 Garden Plants and how to cultivate them, Italy (Könemann) 42004.
  • CD = Faulkner, R.O.: A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Oxford (Griffith Institute) 1991.
  • Chardonnens, D.: L’odorat dans l’expérience religieuse en Égypte à travers les documents sur Amon (Master en Égyptologie), Strasbourg (Université de Strasbourg, Faculté des Sciences Historiques) 2016.
  • Chassinat, É.: «Quelques parfums et onguents en usage dans les temples de l’Égypte ancienne», Revue de l’Égypte ancienne 3, 1931, 117-167.
  • Cock, I.E. & van Vuuren, S.F.: «Anti–Proteus Activity of Some South African Medicinal Plants: Their Potential for the Prevention of Rheumatoid Arthritis», Inflammopharmacology 221, 2014, 23-36 [DOI: 10.1007/s10787-013-0179-3 ].
  • Cunningham, S.: The Complete Book of Incenses, Oils and Brews, Minnesota (Llewellyn Publications) 1989.
  • Cuthbert, E.G. & Atchley, F.: A History of the Use of Incense in Divine Worship, London (Longmans) 1909.
  • De Hemmer Gudme, A.K.: «The Aroma of Majesty: Gender and the Hebrew Bible’s Olfactory Cultic Theology», The Mummy under the Bed: Essays on Gender and Methodology in the Ancient Near East (De Graef, K. et al., eds), Münster (Zaphon / wEdge 1, Cutting–Edge Researches in Cuneiform Studies) 2022, 217-231.
  • Delfani, S., Mohammadrezaei–Khorramabadi, R., Abbaszadeh, S., Naghdi, N. & Shahsavari, S.: «Phytotherapy for Streptococcus pyogenes», Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research 95, 2017: 513-526.
  • Didot, A.F.: Plutarchi Chæronensis: Scripta Moralia (texte hellénique et traduction en Latin), Paris (Institut Impérial de Typographes de France) 1868, 429-469: «De Iside et Osiride».
  • EG = Gardiner, A.H.: Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Oxford (Griffith Institute) 31988.
  • Faviou, E., Magiorkinis, E., Maravelia, A. & Filianos, M.: «Cultivating a Deeper Understanding: Comparative Microbiological Experiments on the Antimicrobial Potential of Kyphi», JHIE 6, 2023, 25-42 [DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10996333].
  • Φιλιππιδης, Λ.Ι. (ed.): Πλουτάρχου Ἠθικὰ 2, Ἀθῆναι (Πάπυρος / Ἀρχαία Ἑλληνικὴ Γραμματεία) 11975.
  • Ganszyniec, R.: art. «Kyphi», Real –Enzyklopädie der klassischen Alterumswissenschaſt / Pauly–Wissowa XII1, Stuttgart 1924, 52-57.
  • Germer, R.: «Ancient Egyptian Pharmaceutical Plants and the Eastern Mediterranean», The Healing Past: Pharmaceuticals in the Biblical and Rabbinic World, Leiden–NY–Köln (Studies in Ancient Medicine 7) 1993, 69-80.
  • Germer, R.: Handbuch der alt ägyptischen Heilpflanzen, Wiesbaden (Harrassowitz / Philippika / MAA 21) 2008.
  • Griffiths, J.G.: Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride, Swansea (University of Wales Press) 1970.
  • Groom, N.: Frankincense and Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade, NY (Longman) 1981.
  • Gunther, R.T. (ed.): The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides, Oxford (University Press) 1934.
  • Hannig, R.: Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch–Deutsch (2800-950 v. Chr.), Mainz (P. von Zabern) 52009.
  • Hopfner, T.: Fontes Historicæ Religionum Ægyptiacæ: Pars I . Auctores ab Homero usque ad Diodorum continens (Clemen, K., ed.), Bonnæ (Marcus und Weber) 1922.
  • Hort, A. (ed.): Theophrastus Enquiry into Plants I-II, Cambridge MA (Harvard University Press / Loeb Classical Library 70) 1916.
  • Hyderi, Z., Saravanan, K., Deepa–Iswaryia, M.S. & Ravi, A.V.: «The Emerging Clinical Relevance of Enterococcus gallinarum: A Roadmap for Future Research and Diagnostics», Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 1141, 2026, 117104 [DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2025.117104 ].
  • Ianarrilli, F.: «%Ti ¨dwn: The Scent as Mark of Divinity and Otherness», The Gods of the Others the Gods and the Others, Rome (Università Sapienza / Morcelliana / SMSR 841) 2018, 119-130.
  • Kadhim, W.A., Kadhim, M.J. & Hameed, I.H.: «Antibacterial Activity of Several Plant Extracts Against Proteus Species», International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 812, 2016: 1673-1684.
  • LÄ = Helck, W. & Otto, E. (Hrsg.): Lexikon der Ägyptologie I-VII, Wiesbaden (O. Harrassowitz) 1975-1989.
  • Laisney, V.P.: «Les encensoirs égyptiens en forme de “Bras de Horus” avec une insistance sur les moins connus», Orientalia78, 2009, 229-257.
  • Lalanne, B. & Métra, G.: Le texte médical du papyrus Ebers: Transcription hiéroglyphique, translittération, traduction, glossaire et index, Bruxelles (Éditions Safran / Langues et Cultures Anciennes 28) 2017.
  • Leitz, C.: «Aromatische Substanzen», Altägyptische Enzyklopädien: Die Soubassements in den Tempeln der griechisch–römischen Zeit 1, (Rickert, A. & Ventker, B., Hrsg.), Wiesbaden (Studien zur spätägyptischen Religion 7) 2014, 500-512.
  • Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R.: A Greek–English Lexicon (Revised and Augmented Edition with a Supplement), Oxford (Oxford at the Clarendon Press) 1968.
  • Limsuwan, S. & Voravuthikunchai, S.P.: «Anti–Streptococcus pyogenes Activity of Selected Medicinal Plant Extracts used in Thai Traditional Medicine», Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 124, 2013, 535-540.
  • Loret, V.: «Le kyphi. Parfum sacré des anciens Égyptiens», Journal Asiatique X, 1887, 76-132.
  • Loret, V.: La flore pharaonique, d’après les documents hiéroglyphiques et les spécimens decouverts dans les tombes, Paris (Ernest Leroux, Éditeur) 21892.
  • Loret, V.: La résine de térébinthe (sonter) chez les anciens égyptiens, Le Caire (Recherches d’Archéologie de Philologie et d’Histoire XIX) 1949.
  • Lucas, A.: «Cosmetics, Perfumes and Incense in Ancient Egypt», JEA 16, 1930, 41-53.
  • Lüchtrath, A.: «Das Kyphirezept», Edfu: Bericht über drei Surveys. Materialien und Studien (Kurth, D., Hrsg.), Wiesbaden (ITE Begleitheſt 5) 1999, 108-109.
  • Manandhar, S., Luitel, S. & Dahal, R.K.: «In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Some Medicinal Plants against Human Pathogenic Bacteria», Journal of Tropical Medicine 20191, 2019, 1895340 [DOI: http://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1895340 ].
  • Manniche, L.: Egyptian Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy and Cosmetics in Pharaonic Times, Cairo (The AUC Press) 1999.
  • Maravelia, A. & Filianos, M.: «The Kyphi/Κῦφι/KApt–Incense of the Ancient Egyptians and the Orthodox Holy Chrism», Environment and Religion in Ancient and Coptic Egypt: Sensing the Cosmos through the Eyes of the Divine (Maravelia, A. & Guilhou, N., eds), Oxford (Archaeopress Egyptology 30) 2020, 257-303.
  • Maravelia, A., Faviou, E. & Filianos, M.: «Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Properties of the Kyphi (and of the Orthodox Holy Chrism): A Microbiological Approach», Ægyptus et Pannonia VIII2 (Győry, H., ed.), Budapest (HEFS–AEC / Acta Symposii Anno 2021) 2022, 7-41.
  • Maravelia, A., Faviou, E. & Filianos, M.: The Ancient Egyptian Kyphi and the Orthodox Holy Chrism: New Perspectives of Research, Athens (Occasional Publications of the Hellenic Institute of Egyptology – 4) 2023.
  • Maravelia, A., Faviou, E., Magiorkinis, E. & Filianos, M.: «Laboratory Testing of the Antimicrobial Effects of Kyphi on a Variety of Micro–Organisms», Prague Egyptological Studies 33, 2024, 23-48.
  • Meeks, D. & Favard–Meeks, C.: Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods, London (John Murray Publishers) 1996.
  • Merck: The Merck Index – Fourteenth Edition (O’Neil, M.J., Heckelman, P.E. et al ., eds), Whitehouse Station NJ (Merck Research Laboratories / Merck & Co, Inc.) 142006 || The Merck Index – Fiſteenth Edition, Cambridge (Merck & RSC) 152013.
  • Moursi, H.: Die Heilpflanzen im Land der Pharaonen: Ägyptisch–Nubische Volksmedizin, Kairo (Lehnert & Landrock) 1992.
  • Nunn, J.F.: Ancient Egyptian Medicine, London (BMP) 1996.
  • Pennacchio, M., Jefferson, L.V. & Havens, K.: Uses and Abuses of Plant–Derived Smoke: Its Ethnobotany as Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense and Medicine, Oxford (Oxford University Press) 2010.
  • Perdu, O.: «Le prêtre “à l’odeur agréable”», Sur le chemin du Mouseion d’Alexandrie: Études offertes à M.–C. Bruwier (Doyen, F. et al., eds), Montpellier (Équipe Égypte Nilotique et Méditerranéenne – Université Paul Valéry Montpellier 3 / CENiM 19) 2018, 229-251.
  • Peter, K.V. (ed.): Handbook of Herbs and Spices III, Cambridge (Woodhead Publishing Limited / CRC Press) 2006.
  • Plinius Presb.: Natural History (translated by Rackham, H.) 1-5, 9, Cambridge MA (Harvard University Press) 1936.
  • Posener, G. et al. (éds): Dictionnaire de la civilisation égyptienne, Paris (Hazan) 21992.
  • Price, R.: «Sniffing out the Gods: Archaeology with the Senses», JAEI 17, 2018, 137-155.
  • Puvača, N., Milenković, J., Galonja Coghill, T., Bursić, V., Petrović, A., Tanasković, S., Pelić, M., Ljubojević Pelić, D. & Miljković, T.: «Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Essential Oils against Selected Pathogenic Bacteria: In Vitro Study», Antibiotics 105, 2021, 546 [DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10050546].
  • Rao, P.V. & Gan, H.G.: «Cinnamon: A Multifaceted Medicinal Plant», Evidence–Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine Vol. 2014, Cairo (Hindawi Publishing Corporation) 2014, 1-12 [DOI: 10.1155/2014/642942].
  • Rawaa, M.M. & Nidaa, F.A.: «Antibacterial Activity of Some Plants Extracts against Proteus mirabilis Bacteria», 3C Empresa. Investigación y pensamiento crítico 121, 2023, 301-309 [DOI: 10.17993/3cemp.2023.120151.301-309].
  • Revati, S., Bipin, C., Chitra, P.B., Minakshi, B.: «In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Seven Indian Spices against High Level Gentamicin Resistant Strains of Enterococci», Arch . Med . Sci . 114, 2015, 863-868 [DOI: 10.5114/aoms.2015.53307].
  • Silva, N.C.C. & Fernandes Júnior, A.: «Biological Properties of Medicinal Plants: A Review of their Antimicrobial Activity», The Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases 16, 2010, 402-413.
  • Sprengel, C.: Pedanii Dioscoridis Anazarbei: De Materia Medica Libri Quinque, Lipsiæ (Of. Libraria C. Cnoblochii) 1829.
  • Strong, M.E.: Sacred Flames: The Power of Artificial Light in Ancient Egypt, Cairo–New York (The AUC Press) 2021.
  • Strouhal, E., Vachala, B. & Vymazalová, H.: The Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians 1: Surgery, Gynecology, Obstetrics, Pediatrics, Cairo–New York (The AUC Press) 2014.
  • Tatomir, R.: «Incense as a Transdisciplinary Vehicle in Ancient Egypt and Christianity: Similarities and Differences», Transdisciplinary Approaches of the Dialogue between Science, Art and Religion in the Europe of Tomorrow: Contributions to the International Congress held in Sibiu, 9-11 Sept. 2007 (Nicolescu, B. & Stavinschi, M., eds), Bucureşti (C. Veche) 2008, 169-176.
  • Tatomir, R.: «To cause “to make Divine” through Smoke: Ancient Egyptian Incense and Perfume. An Inter– and Trans–Disciplinary Re–Evaluation of Aromatic Biotic Materials used by the Ancient Egyptians», Mœsica et Christiana: Studies in Honour of Professor Alexandru Barnea (Panaite, A. et al., eds), Brăila 2016, 665-678.
  • Tatomir, R.: art. «Incense», The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (Bagnall, R.S., Brodersen, K. et al., eds), NJ (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd) 2017, 1-3.
  • Theophrastus: De H i storia Plantarum (Bodaeus á Stapel, J., ed.), Amsterdam (Judoci Broerseen) 1644.
  • Van–Beak, G.W.: «Frankincense and Myrrh», The Biblical Archaeologist 233, 1960, 70-95.
  • Van Wyk, B.–E. & Wink, M.: Medicinal Plants of the World: An Illustrated Scientific Guide to Important Medicinal Plants and their Uses, Pretoria (Briza) 2004.
  • Von Lieven, A.: «Thy Fragrance is in all my Limbs: On the Olfactory Sense in Ancient Egyptian Religion», Religion für die Sinne – Religion for the Senses (Reichling, P. & Strothmann, M., eds.), Oberhausen (Artificium 58) 2016, 309-325.
  • Vygus, M.: Dictionary of Ancient Egyptian Flora (extracted from his Ancient Hieroglyphic Dictionary), London 2012 [in the form of a PDF, via the kind information provided by Mr Rhio Barnhart].
  • Wb. = Erman, A. & Grapow, H.: Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache I-V, Leipzig (J. Hinrichs) 1926-1931.
  • Wellmann, M. (ed.): Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei De Materia Medica Libri Quinque I-V, Berlin (Weidman) 1906-1914.
  • Wreszinski, W.: Der Papyrus Ebers, Leipzig (Hinrichs) 1913.
  • Zahran, M.A. & Willis, A.J.: The Vegetation of Egypt, Dordrecht–NY (Springer) 22008.
  • Zhang, X., Li, L. & Huang, R.: «Sepsis Secondary to Postoperative Enterococcus gallinarum Infection in a Patient with Rectal Cancer: A Case Report», Medicine 10449, 2025, e46454 [DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000046454].
More papers from this issue